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the 20th century was still young

Толкование Перевод

1 young

1. adjective
(in the first part of life, growth, development etc; not old: a young person; Young babies sleep a great deal; A young cow is called a calf.) joven

2. noun plural
(the group of animals or birds produced by parents: Most animals defend their young.) crías

- youngster
- the young

young¹ adj joven

a young man un joven / un hombre joven

he's ten years younger than me tiene diez años menos que yo

the young los jóvenes

young² n crías

a lioness and her young una leona y sus crías

young

tr[jʌŋ]

adjective

1 (gen) joven; (brother, sister) menor

I'm not as young as I used to be ya no soy tan joven

we're not getting any younger nos estamos haciendo viejos

the night is yet young la noche aún es joven

my young sister mi hermana menor

noun the young

1 (humans) los jóvenes nombre masculino plural, la juventud nombre femenino, la gente nombre femenino joven; (animals) las crías nombre femenino plural

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

you're only young once sólo se vive una vez

to have an old head on young shoulders ser maduro,-a para su edad

to be young at heart ser joven de espíritu

young lady (woman) señorita 2 (girlfriend) novia

young man (man) joven nombre masculino, muchacho 2 (boyfriend) novio

young woman joven nombre femenino, muchacha

young ['jʌŋ] adj, younger ['jʌŋgər] ; youngest [-gəst]

1) : joven, pequeño, menor

young people: los jóvenes

my younger brother: mi hermano menor

she is the youngest: es la más pequeña

2) fresh, new: tierno (dícese de las verduras), joven (dícese del vino)

3) youthful: joven, juvenil

young npl

: jóvenes mfpl (de los humanos), crías fpl (de los animales)

I jʌŋ
adjective younger 'jʌŋgər, 'jʌŋgə(r), youngest 'jʌŋgəst, 'jʌŋgɪst

a) <animal/person> joven

I have a younger brother — tengo un hermano menor

she is four years younger than me — tiene cuatro años menos que yo, es cuatro años menor que yo

this is Patricia, our youngest — ésta es Patricia, la (más) pequeña or la menor

a young man/woman — un/una joven

a young lady — una señorita, una chica joven

her young man — su novio

now listen to me, young man/lady — escúcheme jovencito/jovencita

young people — la gente joven, los jóvenes, la juventud

the younger generation — la nueva generación, la gente joven

to die/marry young — morir*/casarse joven

to be young at heart — ser* joven de espíritu

you're only young once — (set phrase) sólo se es joven una vez (en la vida)

the night is young — (set phrase) la noche es joven (fr hecha)

b) <appearance/manner/complexion> juvenil

she's very young for her age o years — parece más joven de lo que es

you're as young as you feel — (set phrase) la juventud se lleva dentro (fr hecha)

c) <rhubarb/spinach> tierno; < wine> joven

II

plural noun

a) ( humans)

the young — los jóvenes, la juventud

b) ( animals) crías fpl

[jʌŋ]
1. ADJ
(compar younger) (superl youngest)
1) (=not old) [person, animal] joven; [child] pequeño, de corta edad

my younger brother — mi hermano menor or pequeño

she is two years younger than me — es dos años más joven que yo, tiene dos años menos que yo

if I were ten years younger — si tuviera diez años menos, si fuera diez años más joven

I'm not so young as I was, I'm not getting any younger — los años no perdonan or no pasan en balde

young Britain — la juventud británica

Pitt the younger — Pitt el joven

• she started writing poetry at a very young age — comenzó a escribir poesía siendo muy joven

at a very young age he was sent to boarding school — siendo muy pequeño lo mandaron a un internado

• in my young(er) days — cuando era joven, en mi juventud

• they have a young family — tienen niños pequeños

• she looks quite young for her age — aparenta bastante menos edad de la que tiene, parece bastante más joven de lo que es

• the younger generation — la generación de los más jóvenes

the younger generation of film-makers — la generación de cineastas jóvenes

• young hopeful — joven aspirante mf

• a young lady — una joven

why thank you, young lady! — ¡muchas gracias, señorita or joven!

now look here, young lady! — ¡atiende, jovencita!

• a young man — un joven

you've done well, young man — muy bien hecho, muchacho

she's out with her young man — ha salido con su novio or chico *

• to marry young — casarse joven

• it is enjoyed by millions, young and old — millones lo disfrutan, grandes y pequeños

• a young person — una persona joven

- you're as young as you feel

- young at heart

- the night is young

- you're only young once
Turk
2) (=youthful)

that dress is too young for her — ese vestido es para alguien más joven

• the family business was in need of young blood — el negocio familiar necesitaba savia nueva

• he has a very young outlook — piensa como los jóvenes, tiene mentalidad de joven

3) (=new) [moon] nuevo; [plant, spinach, wheat] tierno; [wine, country] joven

the 20th century was still young — el siglo XX estaba todavía en sus comienzos

2. NPL

1) (=offspring) [of animals] crías fpl

a mother defending her young — una madre protegiendo a sus crías

to be with young — estar preñada

2) (=young people)

the young — los jóvenes, la juventud

3.

CPD

young gun N — (=actor, sportsman etc) joven valor m

young offender N — (Brit) delincuente mf juvenil

* * *

I [jʌŋ]
adjective younger ['jʌŋgər, 'jʌŋgə(r)], youngest ['jʌŋgəst, 'jʌŋgɪst]

a) <animal/person> joven

I have a younger brother — tengo un hermano menor

she is four years younger than me — tiene cuatro años menos que yo, es cuatro años menor que yo

this is Patricia, our youngest — ésta es Patricia, la (más) pequeña or la menor

a young man/woman — un/una joven

a young lady — una señorita, una chica joven

her young man — su novio

now listen to me, young man/lady — escúcheme jovencito/jovencita

young people — la gente joven, los jóvenes, la juventud

the younger generation — la nueva generación, la gente joven

to die/marry young — morir*/casarse joven

to be young at heart — ser* joven de espíritu

you're only young once — (set phrase) sólo se es joven una vez (en la vida)

the night is young — (set phrase) la noche es joven (fr hecha)

b) <appearance/manner/complexion> juvenil

she's very young for her age o years — parece más joven de lo que es

you're as young as you feel — (set phrase) la juventud se lleva dentro (fr hecha)

c) <rhubarb/spinach> tierno; < wine> joven

II

plural noun

a) ( humans)

the young — los jóvenes, la juventud

b) ( animals) crías fpl

English-spanish dictionary > young
2 noch

I Adv.

1. still; immer noch oder noch immer still; noch nicht not yet; noch ist es nicht zu spät it’s not too late yet; noch nie never (before); noch lange nicht umg. not by a long chalk (Am. shot); wir sind noch lange nicht fertig etc. we’re not nearly ( oder nowhere near) ready etc.

2. geringen zeitlichen Abstand ausdrückend: noch am selben Tag that (very) same day; noch gestern only yesterday; heute noch (bis heute) to this day; noch jetzt even now; sie war eben oder gerade noch hier she was here only a moment ago; noch im 11. Jahrhundert... as late as the 11th century...; noch im 11. Jahrhundert benutzte man sie auch they were still in use in the 11th century

3. begrenzten zeitlichen Rahmen ausdrückend: der Brief muss heute noch oder noch heute zur Post I etc. have to get this letter to the post office by the end of today; er starb noch an der Unfallstelle he died at the scene of the accident; noch bevor er etwas sagen konnte, ging sie hinaus she left before he could say anything

4. (nicht mehr als): er hat nur noch 10 Dollar he’s only got 10 dollars left; es sind ( nur) noch 5 Kilometer bis zur Raststätte it’s (only) 5 more kilomet|res (Am. -ers) to the service station

5. (ein weiteres Mal, zusätzlich) more; noch ( ein) mal once more, one more time, again; umg., nach Versprecher: let’s try that (one) again; das ist noch einmal gut gegangen that was close ( oder a close thing [Am. call]), umg. talk about lucky; noch dazu on top of that; dazu kommt noch, dass er trinkt not only that - he drinks too, auch and then he drinks on top of it (all); noch einer one more, another one; noch ein Stück another ( oder one more) piece; noch ein Bier, bitte! the same again, another beer, please; noch zwei Kaffee, bitte! two more coffees, please; auch das noch! that’s all I etc. needed; er hat Geld noch und noch oder nöcher umg. he’s got piles ( oder stacks) of money; es gab zu essen noch und noch oder nöcher umg. there was loads to eat; sie redet noch und noch she never stops talking; noch einmal so viel as much again; und noch etwas and another thing; noch etwas? anything else?; was wollen Sie noch? what more do you want?; ( und) was noch? umg. (and) what else?; wer kommt noch? who else is coming?; noch fünf Minuten five minutes to go; bittend: five more minutes, another five minutes; fehlen 1, 4, gerade II 2, 3

6. (möglicherweise): du kommst noch zu spät! you’ll be late if you’re not careful; er landet noch im Gefängnis umg. he’ll end up in prison if he’s not careful; sie wird ( schon) noch anrufen she’ll still call

7. (zuvor, vorher): sie will erst noch duschen she just wants to have a shower first; ich mache das noch fertig I’ll just finish this

8. (später): er wird noch kommen he will come; vielleicht kann man das noch ( ein) mal gebrauchen perhaps it can be used again sometime

9. beim Komparativ einen höheren Grad ausdrückend: noch besser / mehr even better / more; noch schlauer als du even smarter than you; es klingt etc. nur noch verdächtiger even ( oder all the) more suspicious; schön I 6

10. einräumend: jede noch so kleine Spende zählt every donation counts however small it is; sei es noch so klein no matter how small it is, however small it may be; mag sie auch noch so sehr schimpfen oder wenn sie auch noch so sehr schimpft however ( oder no matter how) much she grumbles

11. verstärkend: das ist noch Qualität that’s what I call quality; da bekommt man noch etwas für sein Geld at least there you get value for money (Am. auch something for your money); da haben wir ja noch Glück gehabt we were lucky there; der wird sich noch wundern he’s in for a surprise; noch im Fallen zog er die Pistole he drew the pistol before he hit the ground; man wird ( doch) noch fragen dürfen I etc. was only asking; das wirst du noch bereuen drohend: you’re going to regret that

12. fragend: da kannst du noch lachen? how can you find that funny?; jetzt will er noch baden? he wants to go for a swim now?; nach Vergessenem: wie heißt sie noch? what’s ( oder what was) her name again?; was hattest du noch gesagt? what was it you said (again)?; wann war die Party noch ( mal)? umg. when was the party again?

13. (weniger als): das kostet noch keine 5 Dollar it costs less than 5 dollars; es dauert noch keine 10 Minuten it won’t even take 10 minutes; er kann noch nicht einmal kochen he can’t even cook

II Konj.: sie hat keine Bekannten, noch Freunde in der Stadt geh. she has no acquaintances or friends in the town; weder

* * *

nor (Konj.); even; yet; still

* * *
nọch [nɔx]
1. adv

1) (= weiterhin, bis jetzt, wie zuvor) still

noch nicht — still not, not yet

bist du fertig? – noch nicht — are you ready? – not yet

er ist noch nicht da — he still isn't here, he isn't here yet

immer noch, noch immer — still

sie ist immer noch nicht fertig — she still isn't ready (yet), she isn't ready yet

er dachte noch lange an sie — it was a long time before he stopped thinking of her

du bist noch zu klein — you're still too young

sie ist noch jung — she's only or still young

er schläft noch — he's still asleep

noch nie — never

das habe ich noch nie gehört — I've never known that (before)

ich gehe kaum noch aus — I hardly go out any more

ich möchte gern[e] noch bleiben — I'd like to stay on longer

2) (= irgendwann) some time, one day

er wird sich ( schon) noch daran gewöhnen — he'll get used to it (some time or one day)

das kann noch passieren — that just might happen, that might still happen

er wird noch kommen — he'll come (yet)

3)

(= eben, nicht später als) das muss noch vor Dienstag fertig sein — it has to be ready by Tuesday

ich habe ihn noch vor zwei Tagen gesehen — I saw him only two days ago

er ist noch am selben Tag gestorben — he died the very same day

ich tue das noch heute or heute noch — I'll do it today or this very day

noch im 18. Jahrhundert — as late as the 18th century

gerade noch — (only) just

noch gestern war er frisch und munter — (only) yesterday he was still bright and cheerful

noch keine drei Tage — not three days

4) (einschränkend) (only) just

(gerade) noch gut genug — (only) just good enough

5)

(= außerdem, zusätzlich) wer war noch da? — who else was there?

(gibt es) noch etwas? — (is there) anything else?

ich will noch etwas sagen — there's something else or another thing I want to say

noch etwas Fleisch — some more meat, a bit more meat

noch einer — another (one)

noch ein Bier — another beer

noch zwei Bier — two more beers, another two beers

noch einmal or mal — (once) again, once more

und es regnete auch noch or noch dazu — and on top of that it was raining

dumm und noch dazu frech — stupid and impudent with it (inf)

ich gebe Ihnen noch zwei dazu — I'll give you two extra

noch ein Wort! — (not) another word!

6) (bei Vergleichen) even, still, yet

noch größer — even or still or yet bigger

er will noch mehr haben — he wants even or still more

das ist noch besser — that's even better, that's better still or still better

das ist noch viel wichtiger als... — that is far more important yet or still than...

(und) seien sie auch noch so klein — however small they may or might be

und wenn du auch noch so bittest... — however much you ask...

7) (inf)

wir fanden Fehler noch und nöcher (hum inf) — we found tons (inf) or loads (inf) of mistakes

Geld noch und nöcher (hum inf) — heaps and heaps of money (inf)

er kann noch und nöcher erzählen — he can go on telling stories for ever

ich kann Ihnen Beispiele noch und nöcher geben — I can give you any number of examples

sie hat noch und nöcher versucht,... — she tried again and again to...

2. conj
(weder... noch...) nor
nicht X, noch Y, noch Z — not X nor Y nor Z

* * *

1) (yet; still: My boots were dirty, but his were even dirtier.) even

2) (even: He seemed very ill in the afternoon and in the evening looked still worse.) still

3) (again: We'll play it once more.) more

4) (up till now: He hasn't telephoned yet; Have you finished yet?; We're not yet ready.) yet

5) (used for emphasis: He's made yet another mistake / yet more mistakes.) yet

6) ((with a comparative adjective) even: a yet more terrible experience.) yet

* * *

noch

[ˈnɔx]

I. adv

1. (außerdem, zusätzlich) in addition

sie hat ein Auto und auch \noch ein Motorrad he has a car and a motorbike as well

\noch ein Wort! [not] another word!

[sonst] \noch etwas? anything else?

bitte \noch ein/zwei Bier! another beer/two more beers, please!

möchten Sie \noch eine Tasse Kaffee? would you like another cup of coffee?

bist du satt oder möchtest du \noch etwas essen? are you full or would you like something more to eat?

mein Geld ist alle, hast du \noch etwas? I don't have any money left, do you have any?

es fehlt mir \noch ein Euro I need another euro

es dauert \noch zehn Minuten it'll be another ten minutes

\noch einmal so lang as long again

wer war \noch da? who else was there?

hat er dir \noch etwas gesagt? did he tell you anything else?

ich will \noch etwas sagen there's another thing I want to say

es war \noch anders it was different again

das ist nicht alles, diese Kisten kommen \noch dazu that's not everything, there are these crates too

ich gebe dir \noch zwei dazu I'll give you two extra

auch \noch [o \noch dazu]:

er ist dumm und \noch dazu frech he's thick and cheeky into the bargain

und es regnete auch \noch and on top of that it was raining

▪ \noch eine(r, s) another

haben Sie \noch einen Wunsch? [can I get you] anything else?

lass die Tür bitte auf, da kommt \noch einer leave the door open please, there's somebody else coming

\noch [ein]mal [once] again, once more

sie hat das \noch einmal/noch einige Male gemacht she did it again/several times more

nur \noch only

ich habe nur \noch fünf Euro I've only five euros left

2. in der Gegenwart, Vergangenheit (weiterhin) still

er ist \noch da he's still here

sie schläft \noch she's still asleep

ich möchte gerne \noch bleiben I'd like to stay on longer

bleib doch \noch ein bisschen! stay a bit longer!

ein \noch ungelöstes Problem an as yet unsolved problem

ich rauche kaum \noch I hardly smoke any more

du bist \noch zu jung you're still too young

auch wenn es nicht leichtfällt, \noch müssen wir schweigen even though it might not be easy, we have to keep quiet for now

\noch nach Jahren... even years later...

sie dachte \noch lange an ihn it was a long time before she stopped thinking of him

\noch heute [o heute \noch] still today, even now [or today]

\noch heute gibt es Leute, die alte Bräuche pflegen even today some people maintain their old customs [or traditions

3. (bis jetzt)

\noch immer [nicht] still [not]

sie hat [bis jetzt] \noch immer gewonnen she's won every time up until now

wir wissen \noch immer nicht mehr we still don't know anything else

er ist immer \noch nicht fertig he still isn't ready, he isn't ready yet

sie ist immer \noch nicht da she's still not here

\noch nicht not yet, still not

halt, warte, tu das \noch nicht! stop, wait, don't do it yet!

bist du fertig? — \noch nicht are you ready? — not yet

\noch regnet es nicht it hasn't started raining yet

\noch nichts nothing yet

zum Glück ist \noch nichts davon an die Öffentlichkeit gedrungen luckily, none of this has yet become public knowledge

bisher habe ich \noch nichts Definitives erfahren I haven't heard anything more definite yet

\noch nie [o niemals] never

ich habe \noch nie Bagels gegessen I've never eaten bagels before

das habe ich \noch nie gehört I've never known that [before]

die Sonne schien und die Luft war klar wie \noch nie the sun was shining and the sky was clearer than ever before

\noch niemand [o keiner] nobody yet

bisher ist \noch niemand gekommen nobody has arrived yet; s.a. eben, erst, nur

4. in der Zukunft (irgendwann) some time, one day

sie wird \noch kommen she'll come [yet]

du wirst ihn [schon] \noch kennen lernen you'll get to know him yet

ich will \noch schnell duschen I just want to have a quick shower

ich mache das jetzt \noch fertig I'll just get this finished

vielleicht kann man den Karton \noch mal brauchen, ich hebe ihn jedenfalls auf I'll hang on to the box, it might come in handy some time

sie wird sich [schon] \noch daran gewöhnen she'll get used to it [some time [or one day]]

das kann [schon] \noch passieren that just might happen, that might still happen

5. (bis zu einem Zeitpunkt) by the end of

das Projekt dürfte \noch in diesem Jahr abgeschlossen sein the project should be finished by the end of the year

das muss \noch vor Dienstag/Monatsende passieren that's got to happen by Tuesday/by the end of the month

\noch in diesen Tagen werden wir erfahren, was beschlossen wurde we will find out what was decided in the next few days

ich habe das \noch am selben Abend/Tag gemacht I did it the very same evening/day

\noch bevor [o ehe] even before

\noch ehe er antworten konnte, legte sie auf even before he could reply she hung up

\noch heute [o heute \noch] today

\noch heute räumst du dein Zimmer auf! you will tidy up your room today!

ich mache das \noch heute [o heute \noch] I'll do it today [or this very day

6. in der Vergangenheit (erst) only

gestern habe ich sie \noch gesehen I saw her only yesterday

\noch gestern habe ich davon nicht das Geringste gewusst even yesterday I didn't have the slightest idea of it

\noch im 20. Jahrhundert... as late as the 20th century...

es ist \noch keine Woche her, dass... it is less than a week ago that...

ich habe Peter \noch vor zwei Tagen gesehen I saw Peter only two days ago

eben [o gerade] \noch [only] just

er war gerade \noch hier he was here only a moment ago

7. (drückt etw aus, das jetzt nicht mehr möglich ist)

ich habe ihn \noch gekannt I'm old enough to have known him

\noch als Junge wollte er Fälscher werden (veraltend) even as a boy he wanted to become a forger

8. (womöglich) if you're/he's etc. not careful

wir kommen \noch zu spät we're going to be late [if we're not careful]

du landest \noch im Gefängnis you'll land up in prison if you don't watch out

9. (bei Vergleichen) even [more], still

\noch größer/schneller even bigger/quicker, bigger/quicker still

das ist \noch besser that's even better [or better still]

sie will \noch mehr haben she wants even [or still] more

\noch höhere Gebäude verträgt dieser Untergrund nicht this foundation can't support buildings that are higher

seinen Vorschlag finde ich sogar \noch etwas besser I think his suggestion is even slightly better still

geht bitte \noch etwas langsamer, wir kommen sonst nicht mit please walk a bit more slowly, we can't keep up otherwise

ach, ich soll Ihnen die Leitung übergeben? das ist ja \noch schöner! (iron) oh, so you want me to hand over the management to you? that's even better!

10. in Verbindung mit so

▪ ... \noch so however...

er kommt damit nicht durch, mag er auch \noch so lügen he won't get away with it, however much he lies

der Wein mag \noch so gut schmecken, er ist einfach zu teuer however good the wine may taste, it's simply too expensive

du kannst \noch so bitten,... you can beg as much as you like..., however much you plead...

11. einschränkend (so eben) still, just about

das ist im Vergleich \noch billig that's still cheap in comparison

es ist immer \noch teuer genug it's still expensive enough

das ist ja \noch mal gut gegangen it was just about all right

das ist \noch zu tolerieren, aber auch nur gerade \noch that's just about tolerable but only just

sie hat \noch Glück gehabt, es hätte viel schlimmer kommen können she was lucky, it could have been much worse

wenn sie sich wenigstens \noch entschuldigt hätte if she had apologized at least

12.

▶ \noch und \noch [o nöcher] heaps, dozens

ich habe diese undankbare Frau \noch und \noch mit Geschenken überhäuft! I showered this ungrateful woman with heaps of gifts

er hat Geld \noch und nöcher he has oodles [and oodles] of money

ich kann dir Beispiele \noch und nöcher geben I can give you any number of examples

sie hat \noch und nöcher versucht,... she tried again and again to...

II. konj

▪ weder... \noch neither... nor

er kann weder lesen \noch schreiben he can neither read nor write

weder er \noch Peter \noch Richard neither he nor Peter nor Richard

▪ nicht... \noch neither... nor

nicht er \noch seine Frau haben eine Arbeit neither he nor his wife are in work

III. part

1. (verstärkend)

siehst du — man kann sich \noch auf sie verlassen! you see — you can always rely on her!

das ist \noch Qualität! that's what I call quality!

das dauert \noch keine fünf Minuten it won't even take five minutes

2. (drohend)

die wird sich \noch wundern! she's in for a [bit of a] shock!

das wirst du \noch bereuen! you'll regret it!

3. (empört, erstaunt)

hat der sie eigentlich \noch alle? is he round the twist or what?

sag mal, was soll der Quatsch, bist du \noch normal? what is this nonsense, are you quite right in the head?

4. (nach Vergessenem fragend)

wie heißt/hieß er \noch gleich? what's/what was his name again?

* * *
1.
Adverb

1) ([wie] bisher, derzeit) still

noch nicht — not yet

sie sind immer noch nicht da — they're still not here

ich sehe ihn kaum noch — I hardly ever see him any more

noch nach Jahren — even years later

2) (als Rest einer Menge)

ich habe [nur] noch zehn Euro — I've [only] ten euros left

es dauert noch fünf Minuten — it'll be another five minutes

es fehlt [mir/dir usw.] noch ein Euro — I/you etc. need another euro

3) (bevor etwas anderes geschieht) just

ich mache das [jetzt/dann] noch fertig — I'll just get this finished

4) (irgendwann einmal) some time; one day

du wirst ihn [schon] noch kennen lernen — you'll get to know him yet

er wird noch kommen — he will still come

5) (womöglich) if you're/he's etc. not careful

du kommst noch zu spät! — you'll be late if you're not careful

6) (drückt eine geringe zeitliche Distanz aus) only

sie war eben od. gerade noch hier — she was here only a moment ago

es ist noch keine Woche her, dass... — it was less than a week ago that...

7) (nicht später als)

noch am selben Abend — the [very] same evening

8) (drückt aus, dass etwas unwiederholbar ist)

ich habe Großvater noch gekannt — I'm old enough to have known grandfather

9) (drückt aus, dass sich etwas im Rahmen hält)

Er hat noch Glück gehabt. Es hätte weit schlimmer kommen können — He was lucky. It could have been much worse

das geht noch — that's [still] all right or (coll.) OK

das ist noch lange kein Grund — that still isn't any sort of reason

das ist ja noch [ein]mal gut gegangen — (ugs.) it was just about all right

10) (außerdem, zusätzlich)

wer war noch da? — who else was there?

er hat [auch/außerdem] noch ein Fahrrad — he has a bicycle as well

noch etwas Kaffee? — [would you like] some more coffee?

noch ein/zwei Bier, bitte! — another beer/two more beers, please!

ich habe das noch einmal/noch einige Male gemacht — I did it again/several times more

er ist frech und noch dazu dumm od. dumm dazu — he's cheeky and stupid with it

Geld/Kleider usw. noch und noch — heaps and heaps of money/clothes etc. (coll.)

11) (bei Vergleichen)

er ist noch größer [als Karl] — he is even taller [than Karl]

er will noch mehr haben — he wants even or still more

das ist noch besser — that's even better or better still

und wenn er auch noch so bittet — however much he pleads

12) (nach etwas Vergessenem fragend)

wie heißt/hieß sie [doch] noch? — [now] what's/what was her name again?
2.
Partikel

das ist noch Qualität! — that's what I call quality

du wirst es noch bereuen! — you'll regret it!

der wird sich noch wundern — (ugs.) he's in for a surprise

er kann noch nicht einmal lesen — he can't even read
3.
Konjunktion (und auch nicht) nor

weder... noch — neither... nor

* * *

noch

A. adv

1. still;

immer noch oder

noch immer still;

noch nicht not yet;

noch ist es nicht zu spät it’s not too late yet;

noch nie never (before);

noch lange nicht umg not by a long chalk (US shot);

wir sind noch lange nicht fertig etc we’re not nearly ( oder nowhere near) ready etc

2. geringen zeitlichen Abstand ausdrückend:

noch am selben Tag that (very) same day;

noch gestern only yesterday;

heute noch (bis heute) to this day;

noch jetzt even now;

sie war eben oder

gerade noch hier she was here only a moment ago;

noch im 11. Jahrhundert … as late as the 11th century …;

noch im 11. Jahrhundert benutzte man sie auch they were still in use in the 11th century

3. begrenzten zeitlichen Rahmen ausdrückend:

der Brief muss heute noch oder

noch heute zur Post I etc have to get this letter to the post office by the end of today;

er starb noch an der Unfallstelle he died at the scene of the accident;

noch bevor er etwas sagen konnte, ging sie hinaus she left before he could say anything

4. (nicht mehr als):

er hat nur noch 10 Dollar he’s only got 10 dollars left;

es sind (nur) noch 5 Kilometer bis zur Raststätte it’s (only) 5 more kilometres (US -ers) to the service station

5. (ein weiteres Mal, zusätzlich) more;

noch (ein)mal once more, one more time, again; umg, nach Versprecher: let’s try that (one) again;

das ist noch einmal gut gegangen that was close ( oder a close thing [US call]), umg talk about lucky;

noch dazu on top of that;

dazu kommt noch, dass er trinkt not only that - he drinks too, auch and then he drinks on top of it (all);

noch einer one more, another one;

noch ein Stück another ( oder one more) piece;

noch ein Bier, bitte! the same again, another beer, please;

noch zwei Kaffee, bitte! two more coffees, please;

auch das noch! that’s all I etc needed;

er hat Geld noch und noch oder

nöcher umg he’s got piles ( oder stacks) of money;

es gab zu essen noch und noch oder

nöcher umg there was loads to eat;

sie redet noch und noch she never stops talking;

noch einmal so viel as much again;

und noch etwas and another thing;

noch etwas? anything else?;

was wollen Sie noch? what more do you want?;

(und) was noch? umg (and) what else?;

wer kommt noch? who else is coming?;

noch fünf Minuten five minutes to go; bittend: five more minutes, another five minutes; → fehlen 1, 4, gerade B 2, 3

6. (möglicherweise):

du kommst noch zu spät! you’ll be late if you’re not careful;

er landet noch im Gefängnis umg he’ll end up in prison if he’s not careful;

sie wird (schon) noch anrufen she’ll still call

7. (zuvor, vorher):

sie will erst noch duschen she just wants to have a shower first;

ich mache das noch fertig I’ll just finish this

8. (später):

er wird noch kommen he will come;

vielleicht kann man das noch (ein)mal gebrauchen perhaps it can be used again sometime

9. beim Komparativ einen höheren Grad ausdrückend:

noch besser/mehr even better/more;

noch schlauer als du even smarter than you;

es klingt etc

nur noch verdächtiger even ( oder all the) more suspicious; → schön A 6

10. einräumend:

jede noch so kleine Spende zählt every donation counts however small it is;

sei es noch so klein no matter how small it is, however small it may be;

mag sie auch noch so sehr schimpfen oder

wenn sie auch noch so sehr schimpft however ( oder no matter how) much she grumbles

11. verstärkend:

das ist noch Qualität that’s what I call quality;

da bekommt man noch etwas für sein Geld at least there you get value for money (US auch something for your money);

da haben wir ja noch Glück gehabt we were lucky there;

der wird sich noch wundern he’s in for a surprise;

noch im Fallen zog er die Pistole he drew the pistol before he hit the ground;

man wird (doch) noch fragen dürfen I etc was only asking;

das wirst du noch bereuen drohend: you’re going to regret that

12. fragend:

da kannst du noch lachen? how can you find that funny?;

jetzt will er noch baden? he wants to go for a swim now?; nach Vergessenem:

wie heißt sie noch? what’s ( oder what was) her name again?;

was hattest du noch gesagt? what was it you said (again)?;

wann war die Party noch (mal)? umg when was the party again?

13. (weniger als):

das kostet noch keine 5 Dollar it costs less than 5 dollars;

es dauert noch keine 10 Minuten it won’t even take 10 minutes;

er kann noch nicht einmal kochen he can’t even cook

B. konj:

sie hat keine Bekannten, noch Freunde in der Stadt geh she has no acquaintances or friends in the town; → weder

* * *
1.
Adverb

1) ([wie] bisher, derzeit) still

noch nicht — not yet

sie sind immer noch nicht da — they're still not here

ich sehe ihn kaum noch — I hardly ever see him any more

noch nach Jahren — even years later

2) (als Rest einer Menge)

ich habe [nur] noch zehn Euro — I've [only] ten euros left

es dauert noch fünf Minuten — it'll be another five minutes

es fehlt [mir/dir usw.] noch ein Euro — I/you etc. need another euro

3) (bevor etwas anderes geschieht) just

ich mache das [jetzt/dann] noch fertig — I'll just get this finished

4) (irgendwann einmal) some time; one day

du wirst ihn [schon] noch kennen lernen — you'll get to know him yet

er wird noch kommen — he will still come

5) (womöglich) if you're/he's etc. not careful

du kommst noch zu spät! — you'll be late if you're not careful

6) (drückt eine geringe zeitliche Distanz aus) only

sie war eben od. gerade noch hier — she was here only a moment ago

es ist noch keine Woche her, dass... — it was less than a week ago that...

7) (nicht später als)

noch am selben Abend — the [very] same evening

8) (drückt aus, dass etwas unwiederholbar ist)

ich habe Großvater noch gekannt — I'm old enough to have known grandfather

9) (drückt aus, dass sich etwas im Rahmen hält)

Er hat noch Glück gehabt. Es hätte weit schlimmer kommen können — He was lucky. It could have been much worse

das geht noch — that's [still] all right or (coll.) OK

das ist noch lange kein Grund — that still isn't any sort of reason

das ist ja noch [ein]mal gut gegangen — (ugs.) it was just about all right

10) (außerdem, zusätzlich)

wer war noch da? — who else was there?

er hat [auch/außerdem] noch ein Fahrrad — he has a bicycle as well

noch etwas Kaffee? — [would you like] some more coffee?

noch ein/zwei Bier, bitte! — another beer/two more beers, please!

ich habe das noch einmal/noch einige Male gemacht — I did it again/several times more

er ist frech und noch dazu dumm od. dumm dazu — he's cheeky and stupid with it

Geld/Kleider usw. noch und noch — heaps and heaps of money/clothes etc. (coll.)

11) (bei Vergleichen)

er ist noch größer [als Karl] — he is even taller [than Karl]

er will noch mehr haben — he wants even or still more

das ist noch besser — that's even better or better still

und wenn er auch noch so bittet — however much he pleads

12) (nach etwas Vergessenem fragend)

wie heißt/hieß sie [doch] noch? — [now] what's/what was her name again?
2.
Partikel

das ist noch Qualität! — that's what I call quality

du wirst es noch bereuen! — you'll regret it!

der wird sich noch wundern — (ugs.) he's in for a surprise

er kann noch nicht einmal lesen — he can't even read
3.
Konjunktion (und auch nicht) nor

weder... noch — neither... nor

* * *

adj.

another adj.

still adj. adv.

nor adv.

Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > noch
3 touch

1. transitive verb
1) (lit. or fig.) berühren; (inspect by touching) betasten

touch the sky — (fig.) an den Himmel stoßen

touch somebody on the shoulder — jemandem auf die Schulter tippen

touch A to B — B mit A berühren

touch glasses — anstoßen

2) (harm, interfere with) anrühren

the police can't touch you [for it] — die Polizei kann dich nicht [dafür] belangen

3) (fig.): (rival)

touch something — an etwas (Akk.) heranreichen

4) (affect emotionally) rühren

5) (concern oneself with) anrühren

6)

touch somebody for a loan/£5 — (sl.) jemanden anpumpen (salopp) /um 5 Pfund anpumpen od. anhauen (salopp)
2. intransitive verb
sich berühren; [Grundstücke:] aneinander stoßen

don't touch! — nicht anfassen!

‘please do not touch’ — "bitte nicht berühren!"
3. noun
1) Berührung, die

at a touch — bei bloßer Berührung

be soft/warm etc. to the touch — sich weich/ warm usw. anfühlen

2) no pl., no art. (faculty)

[sense of] touch — Tastsinn, der

3) (small amount)

a touch of salt/pepper — etc. eine Spur Salz/Pfeffer usw.

a touch of irony/sadness — etc. ein Anflug von Ironie/Traurigkeit usw.

have a touch of rheumatism — ein bisschen Rheuma haben

a touch — (slightly) ein [ganz] kleines bisschen

4) (game of tag) Fangen, das

5) (Art): (stroke) Strich, der; (fig.) Detail, das

to mention it in such a way was a clever/subtle touch — es auf eine solche Weise zu erwähnen, war ein schlauer/raffinierter Einfall

add or put the final touches to something — einer Sache (Dat.) den letzten Schliff geben

6) (manner, style) (on keyboard instrument, typewriter) Anschlag, der; (of writer, sculptor) Stil, der

a personal touch — eine persönliche od. individuelle Note

lose one's touch — seinen Schwung verlieren; (Sport) seine Form verlieren

7) (communication)

be in/out of touch [with somebody] — [mit jemandem] Kontakt/keinen Kontakt haben

I shall be in touch with them — ich werde mit ihnen Kontakt aufnehmen

be in/ out of touch with something — über etwas (+ Akk.) auf dem laufenden/nicht auf dem laufenden sein

get in touch [with somebody] — mit jemandem Kontakt/Verbindung aufnehmen

keep in touch [with somebody] — [mit jemandem] in Verbindung od. Kontakt bleiben

keep in touch! — lass von dir hören!

keep in touch with something — sich über etwas (Akk.) auf dem laufenden halten

lose touch with somebody — den Kontakt zu jemandem verlieren

we have lost touch — wir haben keinen Kontakt mehr [zueinander]

have lost touch with something — über etwas (Akk.) nicht mehr auf dem laufenden sein

put somebody in touch with somebody — jemanden mit jemandem zusammenbringen

8) (Footb., Rugby): (part of field) Aus, das; Mark, die (Rugby)

in touch — im Aus

9) (coll.)

be an easy or a soft touch — (be a person who gives money readily) leicht rumzukriegen sein (ugs.)

Phrasal Verbs:

- academic.ru/75780/touch_down">touch down

- touch on

- touch up

- touch upon

* * *
1. verb
1) (to be in, come into, or make, contact with something else: Their shoulders touched; He touched the water with his foot.) (sich)berühren

2) (to feel (lightly) with the hand: He touched her cheek.) berühren

3) (to affect the feelings of; to make (someone) feel pity, sympathy etc: I was touched by her generosity.) berühren

4) (to be concerned with; to have anything to do with: I wouldn't touch a job like that.) anrühren
2. noun
1) (an act or sensation of touching: I felt a touch on my shoulder.) die Berührung

2) ((often with the) one of the five senses, the sense by which we feel things: the sense of touch; The stone felt cold to the touch.) der Tastsinn

3) (a mark or stroke etc to improve the appearance of something: The painting still needs a few finishing touches.) der Strich

4) (skill or style: He hasn't lost his touch as a writer.) der Stil

5) ((in football) the ground outside the edges of the pitch (which are marked out with touchlines): He kicked the ball into touch.) das Aus

•

- touching
- touchingly
- touchy
- touchily
- touchiness
- touch screen
- in touch with
- in touch
- lose touch with
- lose touch
- out of touch with
- out of touch
- a touch
- touch down
- touch off
- touch up
- touch wood
* * *

touch

[tʌtʃ]

I. n

<pl -es>

1. no pl (ability to feel) Tasten nt

the sense of \touch der Tastsinn

the material was soft to the \touch das Material fühlte sich weich an

2. (instance of touching) Berührung f

at [or with] a [or the] \touch of a button auf Knopfdruck

3. no pl (communication) Kontakt m

to be in \touch with sb/sth mit jdm/etw in Kontakt sein

to get/keep in \touch [with sb/sth] [mit jdm/etw] in Kontakt treten/bleiben

he's not really in \touch with what young people are interested in er ist nicht mehr richtig auf dem Laufenden über die Interessen der jungen Leute

4. no pl (skill) Gespür nt

I admire her lightness/sureness of \touch as a cook ich bewundere ihre leichte/sichere Hand beim Kochen

to have the magic \touch magische Fähigkeiten haben

to lose one's \touch sein Gespür verlieren

5. no pl (small amount)

▪ a \touch of... ein wenig...

a \touch of bitterness/irony eine Spur Bitterkeit/Ironie

a \touch of flu ( fam) eine leichte Grippe

a \touch of the sun ein Sonnenbrand m

6. no pl (rather)

▪ a \touch ziemlich

the weather has turned a \touch nasty das Wetter ist ziemlich schlecht geworden

7. (valuable addition) Ansatz m

a \touch of genius ein genialer Einfall

the final [or finishing] \touch der letzte Schliff

8. no pl FBALL Aus nt

he kicked the ball into \touch er schlug den Ball ins Aus

9.

▶ to kick sth into \touch idea, project etw auf Eis legen fig

▶ to be a soft \touch ( fam) leichtgläubig sein

II. vt

1. (feel with fingers)

▪ to \touch sb/sth jdn/etw berühren

to \touch the brake auf die Bremse steigen fam

▪ to \touch sb somewhere jdn irgendwo berühren

▪ to \touch sb/sth with sth jdn/etw mit etw dat berühren

the setting sun \touched the trees with red ( fig) die untergehende Sonne tauchte die Bäume in Rot

2. (come in contact with)

▪ to \touch sth mit etw dat in Berührung kommen

the edge of the town \touches the forest die Stadt grenzt an den Wald

tragedy \touched their lives when their son was 16 ( fig) ihre Tragödie begann, als ihr Sohn 16 war

3. (consume)

▪ to \touch sth etw anrühren [o SCHWEIZ a. fam anlangen]

no thanks, I never \touch chocolate nein danke, ich esse keine Schokolade

4. (move emotionally)

▪ to \touch sb jdn bewegen fig

5. (rival in quality)

▪ to \touch sth an etw akk heranreichen

▪ to \touch sb jdm das Wasser reichen

there's no one to \touch him as an illustrator of children's books als Illustrator von Kinderbüchern ist er einfach unschlagbar

6. (deal with)

▪ to \touch sth etw anpacken

to \touch problems Probleme in Angriff nehmen

▪ to \touch sb for sth ( pej fam) jdn um etw akk bitten

7.

▶ not to \touch sb/sth with a barge [or AM ten-foot] pole jdm/etw meiden wie die Pest

▶ to \touch base with sb mit jdm in Kontakt treten

▶ to \touch bottom auf Grund stoßen; ( fig) auf seinem absoluten Tiefpunkt angelangt sein

▶ to \touch a [raw] nerve einen wunden Punkt berühren

▶ \touch wood BRIT wenn alles gutgeht

everybody has got the flu right now except me alle haben im Moment die Grippe außer mir — toi, toi, toi!

III. vi

1. (feel with fingers) berühren

don't \touch nicht berühren

2. (come in contact) sich akk berühren

* * *
[tʌtʃ]
1. n

1) (= sense of touch) (Tast)gefühl nt

to be cold/soft to the touch — sich kalt/weich anfühlen

2) (= act of touching) Berühren nt, Berührung f; (of pianist, typist, piano, typewriter) Anschlag m

she thrilled to his touch — es durchzuckte sie, als er sie berührte

it opens at a touch — es öffnet sich auf Fingerdruck

at the touch of a button — auf Knopfdruck

the wheel responds to the slightest touch — das Lenkrad reagiert sofort or reagiert auf jede Bewegung

braille is read by touch — Blindenschrift wird durch Abtasten gelesen

3) (= skill) Hand f; (= style) Stil m

the touch of a master — die Hand eines Meisters

it has the touch of genius/the professional touch — es hat etwas Geniales/Professionelles or einen genialen/professionellen Anstrich

he's losing his touch — er wird langsam alt

to have the right touch with sb/sth — mit jdm/etw umgehen können

a personal touch — eine persönliche Note

4) (= stroke ART) Strich m; (fig) Einfall m

a book with humorous touches — ein stellenweise humorvolles Buch

a nice touch — eine hübsche Note; (gesture) eine nette Geste

to put the final or finishing touches to sth — letzte Hand an etw (acc) legen, einer Sache (dat) den letzten Schliff geben

the house lacks a woman's touch — es fehlt eine Frau im Haus

5) (= small quantity) Spur f; (esp of irony, sadness etc) Anflug m

a touch of flu —

a touch of fever — leichtes Fieber

a touch of spring — ein Hauch m

he gave the horse a touch of the whip — er ließ das Pferd die Peitsche fühlen or spüren

it is a touch expensive (esp Brit) — es ist eine Spur zu teuer

See:

→ sun

6)

(= communication) to be in (constant) touch with sb — mit jdm in (ständiger) Verbindung stehen

they were in touch with us yesterday — sie haben sich gestern mit uns in Verbindung gesetzt

to be/keep in touch with (political) developments — (politisch) auf dem Laufenden sein/bleiben

I'll be in touch! — ich lasse von mir hören!, ich melde mich!

keep in touch! — lass wieder einmal von dir hören!

to be out of touch with sb — keine Verbindung mehr zu jdm haben

to be completely out of touch (with sth) ( — in Bezug auf etw acc ) überhaupt nicht auf dem Laufenden sein

you can get in touch with me at this number — Sie können mich unter dieser Nummer erreichen

you ought to get in touch with the police — Sie sollten sich mit der Polizei in Verbindung setzen

to lose touch (with sb) — den Kontakt (zu jdm) verlieren

to lose touch (with sth) ( — in Bezug auf etw acc )

a husband and wife who have lost touch with each other — ein Ehepaar, das sich fremd geworden ist or sich entfremdet hat

I'll put you in touch with Mr Brown — ich werde Sie mit Herrn Brown in Verbindung bringen

7) (FTBL) Aus nt; (RUGBY) Aus nt, Mark f

in touch —

to kick for touch (Rugby) — ins Aus or in die Mark schlagen

to kick sb/sth into touch ( Brit fig ) — etw zurückstellen, etw auf Eis legen

8) (inf)

to make a touch — Geld schnorren (inf)

he's usually good for a touch — ihn kann man normalerweise gut anpumpen (inf) or anzapfen (inf)

to be an easy or soft touch — leicht anzupumpen (inf) or anzuzapfen (inf) sein

2. vt

1) (= be in or make contact with) berühren; (= get hold of) anfassen; (= press lightly) piano keys anschlagen, leicht drücken; (= strike lightly) harp strings streichen über (+acc); (= brush against) streifen

she was so happy, her feet hardly touched the ground (fig) — sie war so glücklich, dass sie in den Wolken schwebte

to touch glasses —

don't touch that! he touched his hat to me — fass das nicht an! er tippte (zum Gruß) an den Hut

the speedometer needle touched 100 —

I was touching 100 most of the way — ich fuhr fast immer 100

once I touched 100 — einmal habe ich 100 geschafft

2) (= lay hands on) anrühren, anfassen

the police/tax authorities can't touch me — die Polizei/das Finanzamt kann mir nichts anhaben

the paintings weren't touched by the fire — die Gemälde blieben vom Feuer verschont

3) food, drink anrühren; capital herankommen an (+acc) (inf); (= use) antasten

I haven't touched the piano for months — ich habe seit Monaten nicht mehr Klavier gespielt

4) (= equal) herankommen an (+acc), erreichen

there's nothing to touch hot lemon for a cold — bei einer Erkältung geht nichts über heiße Zitrone

5) (= deal with) problem etc anrühren

everything he touches turns to gold — ihm gelingt einfach alles

I wouldn't touch those shares — ich würde meine Finger von den Aktien lassen

an ordinary detergent won't touch dirt like that — ein normales Reinigungsmittel wird mit diesem Schmutz nicht fertig

I asked them not to touch my desk — ich bat darum, nicht an meinen Schreibtisch zu gehen

6) (= concern) berühren, betreffen

7) (= move emotionally) rühren, bewegen; (= affect) berühren; (= wound) pride treffen

deeply touched — tief gerührt or bewegt

to touch sb's heart — jds Herz (an)rühren

8) (Brit inf)

to touch sb for a loan — jdn um einen Kredit angehen

he touched me for £10 — er hat mich um £ 10 angepumpt (inf)

9)

his hair was touched with grey — sein Haar war von Grau durchzogen

3. vi
(= come into contact) sich berühren; (estates etc = be adjacent also) aneinanderstoßen, aneinandergrenzen
don't touch! — Finger weg!

"please do not touch" — "bitte nicht berühren"

* * *

touch [tʌtʃ]

A s

1. a) Berühren n, Berührung f:

at a touch beim Berühren;

at the slightest touch bei der leisesten Berührung;

at the touch of a button auf Knopfdruck;

that was a near touch umg das hätte ins Auge gehen können, das ist gerade noch einmal gut gegangen;

within touch in Reichweite; → touch and go

b) Fechten: Treffer m

c) Schwimmen: Anschlag m

2. Tastsinn m, -gefühl n:

it is dry to the touch es fühlt sich trocken an;

it has a velvety touch es fühlt sich wie Samt an

3. Verbindung f, Kontakt m, Fühlung(nahme) f:

I’ll be in touch ich melde mich, ich lass was von mir hören;

be in touch with sb mit jemandem Kontakt haben oder in Verbindung stehen;

lose touch with

a) den Kontakt mit jemandem od einer Sache verlieren,

b) SPORT den Anschluss verlieren an (akk);

keep in touch SPORT dranbleiben;

keep in touch melde dich mal wieder, lass wieder mal was von dir hören;

keep in touch with sb

a) mit jemandem in Verbindung bleiben,

b) SPORT den Anschluss an jemanden halten;

get in touch with sb mit jemandem Fühlung nehmen oder in Verbindung treten, sich mit jemandem in Verbindung oder ins Benehmen setzen;

please get in touch bitte melden (Sie sich)! (Zeugen etc);

put sb in touch with jemanden in Verbindung setzen mit;

be out of touch lebens- oder realitäts- oder weltfremd sein;

be out of touch with

a) mit jemandem keinen Kontakt mehr haben,

b) über eine Sache (überhaupt) nicht mehr auf dem Laufenden sein

4. leichter Anfall:

a touch of influenza eine leichte Grippe; → sun A 2

5. (Pinsel- etc) Strich m:

put the finishing touch(es) to einer Sache (den letzten) Schliff geben, letzte Hand legen an (akk)

6. Anflug m:

a touch of sarcasm;

a touch of romance ein Hauch von Romantik;

he has a touch of genius er hat eine geniale Ader;

a touch of the macabre ein Stich ins Makabre;

a touch of red ein rötlicher Hauch, ein Stich ins Rote

7. Prise f, Spur f:

a touch of pepper

8. Hand f (des Meisters etc), Stil m, (souveräne) Manier:

light touch leichte Hand oder Art;

with sure touch mit sicherer Hand

9. (charakteristischer) Zug, besondere Note:

add a personal touch to sth einer Sache eine persönliche Note verleihen

10. Einfühlungsvermögen n, (Fein)Gefühl n

11. fig Gepräge n, Stempel m:

the touch of the 20th century

12. MUS

a) Anschlag m (des Pianisten oder des Pianos)

b) Strich m (des Geigers etc)

13. Probe f:

put to the touch auf die Probe stellen

14. a) Fußball etc: (Seiten)Aus n

b) Rugby: Mark f:

in touch im Seitenaus; in der Mark;

kick the ball into touch den Ball ins Aus schlagen

15. sl

a) Anpumpen n (um Geld)

b) gepumptes Geld

c) he’s a soft ( oder an easy) touch er lässt sich leicht anpumpen

16. sl

a) Klauen n, Stehlen n

b) Fang m, Beute f

B v/t

1. berühren, angreifen, anfassen:

touch wood! unberufen!, toi, toi, toi!; → bargepole, chord¹ 2, forelock¹, nerve A 1, pole¹ A 2, tongs

2. befühlen, betasten

3. fühlen, wahrnehmen

4. (to) in Berühung bringen (mit), legen (an akk, auf akk)

5. miteinander in Berührung bringen

6. leicht anstoßen, (leicht) drücken auf (akk):

touch the bell klingeln;

touch the brake AUTO die Bremse antippen;

touch glasses (mit den Gläsern) anstoßen

7. weitS. (meist neg) Alkohol etc anrühren:

he does not touch cocktails;

he hasn’t touched his dinner;

he refuses to touch these transactions er will mit diesen Geschäften nichts zu tun haben

8. in Berührung kommen oder stehen mit, Kontakt haben mit

9. grenzen oder stoßen an (akk)

10. erreichen, reichen an (akk)

11. fig erreichen, erlangen

12. a) erraten

b) herausfinden

13. umg jemandem oder einer Sache gleichkommen, heranreichen an (akk)

14. tönen, schattieren, (leicht) färben

15. fig färben, (ein wenig) beeinflussen:

morality touched with emotion gefühlsbeeinflusste Moral

16. beeindrucken

17. rühren, bewegen:

I am touched ich bin gerührt;

it touched his ( oder him to the) heart es ging ihm zu Herzen;

touched to tears zu Tränen gerührt

18. fig treffen, verletzen

19. ein Thema etc berühren

20. berühren, betreffen, angehen:

it touches none but him

21. in Mitleidenschaft ziehen, angreifen, mitnehmen:

touched

a) angegangen (Fleisch),

b) umg bekloppt, nicht ganz bei Trost

22. a) haltmachen in (dat)

b) SCHIFF einen Hafen anlaufen

23. sl jemanden anpumpen, anhauen ( beide:

for um)

24. sl klauen, organisieren

25. besonders HIST einem Kranken die Hand auflegen ( for zur Heilung gen)

C v/i

1. sich berühren, Berührung oder Kontakt haben

2. Schwimmen: anschlagen

3. touch (up)on grenzen oder heranreichen an (akk):

it touches on treason es grenzt an Verrat

4. touch (up)on betreffen, berühren:

it touches upon my interests

5. touch (up)on berühren, kurz erwähnen, streifen:

he merely touched upon this question

6. touch at SCHIFF anlegen bei oder in (dat), anlaufen (akk):

touch at a port

* * *
1. transitive verb
1) (lit. or fig.) berühren; (inspect by touching) betasten

touch the sky — (fig.) an den Himmel stoßen

touch somebody on the shoulder — jemandem auf die Schulter tippen

touch A to B — B mit A berühren

touch glasses — anstoßen

2) (harm, interfere with) anrühren

the police can't touch you [for it] — die Polizei kann dich nicht [dafür] belangen

3) (fig.): (rival)

touch something — an etwas (Akk.) heranreichen

4) (affect emotionally) rühren

5) (concern oneself with) anrühren

6)

touch somebody for a loan/£5 — (sl.) jemanden anpumpen (salopp) /um 5 Pfund anpumpen od. anhauen (salopp)
2. intransitive verb
sich berühren; [Grundstücke:] aneinander stoßen

don't touch! — nicht anfassen!

‘please do not touch’ — "bitte nicht berühren!"
3. noun
1) Berührung, die

at a touch — bei bloßer Berührung

be soft/warm etc. to the touch — sich weich/ warm usw. anfühlen

2) no pl., no art. (faculty)

[sense of] touch — Tastsinn, der

3) (small amount)

a touch of salt/pepper — etc. eine Spur Salz/Pfeffer usw.

a touch of irony/sadness — etc. ein Anflug von Ironie/Traurigkeit usw.

have a touch of rheumatism — ein bisschen Rheuma haben

a touch — (slightly) ein [ganz] kleines bisschen

4) (game of tag) Fangen, das

5) (Art): (stroke) Strich, der; (fig.) Detail, das

to mention it in such a way was a clever/subtle touch — es auf eine solche Weise zu erwähnen, war ein schlauer/raffinierter Einfall

add or put the final touches to something — einer Sache (Dat.) den letzten Schliff geben

6) (manner, style) (on keyboard instrument, typewriter) Anschlag, der; (of writer, sculptor) Stil, der

a personal touch — eine persönliche od. individuelle Note

lose one's touch — seinen Schwung verlieren; (Sport) seine Form verlieren

7) (communication)

be in/out of touch [with somebody] — [mit jemandem] Kontakt/keinen Kontakt haben

I shall be in touch with them — ich werde mit ihnen Kontakt aufnehmen

be in/ out of touch with something — über etwas (+ Akk.) auf dem laufenden/nicht auf dem laufenden sein

get in touch [with somebody] — mit jemandem Kontakt/Verbindung aufnehmen

keep in touch [with somebody] — [mit jemandem] in Verbindung od. Kontakt bleiben

keep in touch! — lass von dir hören!

keep in touch with something — sich über etwas (Akk.) auf dem laufenden halten

lose touch with somebody — den Kontakt zu jemandem verlieren

we have lost touch — wir haben keinen Kontakt mehr [zueinander]

have lost touch with something — über etwas (Akk.) nicht mehr auf dem laufenden sein

put somebody in touch with somebody — jemanden mit jemandem zusammenbringen

8) (Footb., Rugby): (part of field) Aus, das; Mark, die (Rugby)

in touch — im Aus

9) (coll.)

be an easy or a soft touch — (be a person who gives money readily) leicht rumzukriegen sein (ugs.)

Phrasal Verbs:

- touch down

- touch on

- touch up

- touch upon

* * *

v.

berühren v.

fassen v.

rühren v. (keyboard) n.

Anschlag -¨e (Tastatur) m. n.

(§ pl.: touches)

= Berührung f.

English-german dictionary > touch
4 Soixante-huit

, or 68

   the milestone year in French life and politics in the second half of the 20th century, when protests by students and workers almost brought down the French government, and led to sweeping changes in French society. The events of 68 were inspired and led by the young generation of the time, wishing to break out of the rather stuffy and conventional society of the time. They coincided with, though initially took a different form to, the 'youth revolution' in Britain and the USA; but while the UK's youth revolution was essentially social and cultural, and led by pop music and op art, France's revolution was political and cultural, a protest against the weight of the Gaullist state.

   The events of May 68 started on the drab concrete campus of the sprawling university of Nanterre in the northern suburbs of Paris, and quickly spread to other universities, notably the Sorbonne. Student leaders, among them DanielCohn- Bendit and Alain Krivine, called for radical change and the end of the 'bourgeois state'; students erected barricades in the Latin Quarter, and were soon joined by workers, notably from the huge Renault plant at Boulogne Billancourt in the Paris suburbs. Though political, the movement sidelined all existing political parties, including the Communists, considered by the new left-wing as being an 'obsolete' political force.

   Faced with turmoil on the streets and a partial collapse of French society, President de Gaulle fled to Germany on 29th May, before returning and promising new elections. But by the time the elections took place, theGrenelle agreements had been negotiated with the trade unions, the heat had died down, and many French people had become seriously alarmed by the turn of events. In the June elections, the Gaullist majority was returned to power with an increased majority.

   The events nevertheless marked the beginning of the end for de Gaulle. In 1969 he organised a referendum on decentralisation, promising to step down if the referendum failed. To a certain extent, de Gaulle's vision of decentralisation was not that wanted by the voters; but in addition, the referendum became seen as a plebiscite on the Gaullist system, rather than on decentralisation. The referendum proposal was rejected by 52.4% of voters, and de Gaulle stepped down.

   It is certain that a new France, less hide-bound, more emancipated and more free, emerged in the aftermath of 68. Whether this would have happened anyway, and whether the means justified the end, are questions about which there is still considerable debate in France to this day.

Dictionnaire Français-Anglais. Agriculture Biologique > Soixante-huit
5 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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the 20th century was still young

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

Перевод: со всех языков на все языки

the 20th century was still young

См. также в других словарях:

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

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